Water and Gendered Vulnerability: Toilets and Risk in Nairobi Part 1
“Men face being mugged, women face being raped, when going to the toilet after dark in Kenya’s slums” (Amnesty International, 2010)
According to WHO and UNICEF, 1/3 of women across the world are unable to access safe and adequate toilet amenities (Gonsalves et. al, 2015). Without planned sewage systems a whole host of issues arise around health and hygiene but recently an increasing number of researchers are pointing to the relationship between sanitation and women's risk of violence. Walking to distant areas or using WASH facilities at night puts women and children at risk of sexual harassment and rape resulting in sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy, "being accused of being unfaithful by husbands, being disowned by families, or mocked by other community members; and mental health challenges such as increased fear and stress" (WaterAid, 2013:1).
I previously addressed water collection and risk. Water collection can generally be done as part of daily routine and women and children can go in groups to help mitigate risk. Going to the toilet differs as it is restricted by the need for privacy. This is especially true for women, as Sommer quite frankly states women's toileting choices are limited 'by their need to squat' (not to mention the challenges those with disabilities face) and by the fact of life that is the menstrual cycle. All of which is heightened given the social and cultural taboos surrounding defecation and menstruation (Sommer, et. al. 2012).
In this post I move my focus from rural to urban. We live in a world that has become decidedly urban and I do not want to give the illusion that women in urban areas are exempt from similar risks.Urban metropolises are constantly growing; the most rapid growth in many African cities is in informal settlements. This is the case in Nairobi, Kenya where over half the population (World Bank estimates around 56%) live in informal settlements. Poverty and the migration of women and girls for work, education, to join family or in pursuit of other needs can also make them vulnerable. Nairobi's informal settlements have become vast, complex communities spanning the city, the biggest include Kibera and Mathare. Swelling populations and a huge un-taxable informal sector mean that amenities are underfunded and under pressure resulting in low sanitation access.
In Mathare, like most of Nairobi the vast majority of the population rely on public toilets. Self-contained household toilets are rare; owned by only a few higher income residents (Thieme, 2010). For most, the toilet is set apart from the home, not only because it is more convenient, but because it is considered more hygienic to keep it away from the home. Due to preconceived cultural and social notions of dirt, many people in Kenya are uncomfortable defecating in their own homes despite this creating a very real security concern for women and children, especially after dark.
In 2010 Amnesty international published a report 'Risking to Reach a Toilet' on the risk of rape in Nairobi's informal settlements. This report found that public toilet facilities in Mathare totalled around 144 with each one being relied on by an absolute minimum of 17 people but this number could up to 232 residents relying solely on one toilet! Furthermore, 70% of people walked 50 meters or more to go to the toilet.
Most of these toilets close at night time, many at 8pm, to prevent them becoming sites of crime. This creates problems for those who need the toilet at night. As a result of closures and some use a plastic bag and throw it out ('flying toilet') while others restrict their food and drink intake to reduce their likelihood of needing the toilet in the evenings (UN, 2006; Amnesty International, 2010; Sommer, et. al. 2012; Winters et. al., 2018).
Globally, more than 65% of residents in informal settlements do not have access to adequate sanitation (UN-HABITAT 2014). Women and girls require safe, easily accessible toilets including adequate facilities for everything involved with urination, defecation or the management of menstruation (e.g. sinks, running water, toilet paper, lockable door, lighting). When sanitation facilities are not easily accessible people are forced to either travel to available toilets or find alternatives such as open defecation (Gonsalves et. al, estimate that globally 1 in 10 individuals practice open defecation daily) or using a bucket in their home.
I previously addressed water collection and risk. Water collection can generally be done as part of daily routine and women and children can go in groups to help mitigate risk. Going to the toilet differs as it is restricted by the need for privacy. This is especially true for women, as Sommer quite frankly states women's toileting choices are limited 'by their need to squat' (not to mention the challenges those with disabilities face) and by the fact of life that is the menstrual cycle. All of which is heightened given the social and cultural taboos surrounding defecation and menstruation (Sommer, et. al. 2012).
In this post I move my focus from rural to urban. We live in a world that has become decidedly urban and I do not want to give the illusion that women in urban areas are exempt from similar risks.Urban metropolises are constantly growing; the most rapid growth in many African cities is in informal settlements. This is the case in Nairobi, Kenya where over half the population (World Bank estimates around 56%) live in informal settlements. Poverty and the migration of women and girls for work, education, to join family or in pursuit of other needs can also make them vulnerable. Nairobi's informal settlements have become vast, complex communities spanning the city, the biggest include Kibera and Mathare. Swelling populations and a huge un-taxable informal sector mean that amenities are underfunded and under pressure resulting in low sanitation access.
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| Example of public toilets in Mathare (Women's News Network, 2010) |
In Mathare, like most of Nairobi the vast majority of the population rely on public toilets. Self-contained household toilets are rare; owned by only a few higher income residents (Thieme, 2010). For most, the toilet is set apart from the home, not only because it is more convenient, but because it is considered more hygienic to keep it away from the home. Due to preconceived cultural and social notions of dirt, many people in Kenya are uncomfortable defecating in their own homes despite this creating a very real security concern for women and children, especially after dark.
“Over half of us take 5-10 minutes to get to the toilet… you go out at night you will get raped and assaulted… For women this is unique because it is not just the risk of an assault or mugging but sexual violence as well.”
In 2010 Amnesty international published a report 'Risking to Reach a Toilet' on the risk of rape in Nairobi's informal settlements. This report found that public toilet facilities in Mathare totalled around 144 with each one being relied on by an absolute minimum of 17 people but this number could up to 232 residents relying solely on one toilet! Furthermore, 70% of people walked 50 meters or more to go to the toilet.
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| 'Risking Rape to Reach a Toilet',Amnesty International, 2010 |
Most of these toilets close at night time, many at 8pm, to prevent them becoming sites of crime. This creates problems for those who need the toilet at night. As a result of closures and some use a plastic bag and throw it out ('flying toilet') while others restrict their food and drink intake to reduce their likelihood of needing the toilet in the evenings (UN, 2006; Amnesty International, 2010; Sommer, et. al. 2012; Winters et. al., 2018).
NGO, Medecins San Frontières (MSF), helps those who have been sexually assaulted in Nairobi's slums by offering social support, care and health services. In Mathare their 24/7 clinics treat 200 new victims each month. They along with the Family Health Option Kenya, estimate 1 in 3 women have been victims of some form of sexual violence. It is important to remember that this threatens not only women, "young girls and boys, as well as women, continue to face daily life as they seek food, water or even in search of a place to relieve themselves" (Kairu,2016:1).
Globally, more than 65% of residents in informal settlements do not have access to adequate sanitation (UN-HABITAT 2014). Women and girls require safe, easily accessible toilets including adequate facilities for everything involved with urination, defecation or the management of menstruation (e.g. sinks, running water, toilet paper, lockable door, lighting). When sanitation facilities are not easily accessible people are forced to either travel to available toilets or find alternatives such as open defecation (Gonsalves et. al, estimate that globally 1 in 10 individuals practice open defecation daily) or using a bucket in their home.
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| A woman standing proudly by a female-friendly toilet. (WASHmatters, 2018) |
See Part 2 -
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